1. Direct method of data collection

1.1 Researcher is present and interacts with subjects

1.2 Subjects are aware researcher is present and collecting data (usually)

1.3 Data are collected in either structured or non-structured way

2. Types of interviews

2.1 Unstructured

2.11 Interviewer guided only by the research goal e.g., What is the nature of gender relations at XYZ Corporation?

2.12 Exploratory .e.g., How are women viewed at XYZ Corporation?

2.13 Good for sensitive questions .e.g., Some people say an organization is like a family. Tell me how you think that view of an organization might or might not apply to XYZ Corporation.

2.2 Semi-structured

2.21 Interviewer uses interview schedule as a guide

2.22 Probing questions...elicit more information .e.g., What are the opportunities for career advancement for women at XYZ Corporation? (Determine respondent's opinion about a "glass ceiling" for women by asking about women in specific upper management positions.)

2.3 Structured

2.31 Interviewer asks a list of exact questions e.g., How many women work at XYZ Corporation? How many hold clerical positions? How many hold supervisory positions? How many hold management positions? How many women have been promoted in the last twelve months? How many men?

3. Types of and criteria for questions

3.1 Open-ended...lets respondent describe, explain, provide whatever information desired

3.2 Closed-ended...respondent selects from a list of answers or provides facts

3.3 Questions should be

3.31 Relevant...related to and necessary to answer the research question

3.32 Clear...with enough clarity to be understood by the respondent and to elicit only the information you want (avoid asking two questions at once)

3.33 Brief...to the point, using as few and as short words as possible

4. Sequence of the interview

4.1 Establish cordial relations...avoid exchanges that are too personal

4.2 Use warm-up questions

4.3 Ask sensitive questions

4.4 Use warm-down questions

4.5 Thank respondent

5. Advantages

5.1 Flexible in that it permits in-depth questioning

5.2 Allows for clarification of confusion/misunderstanding by both respondent and researcher

5.3 Allows for information about the context in which the respondent answered

5.4 Provides access to people who can't complete a questionnaire

5.5 High response rate

6. Disadvantages

6.1 Time consuming and expensive

6.2 Necessity of training of interviewers

6.3 Hard to tablulate responses

6.4 Respondents have less anonymity

1. Looking at an event, behavior, person/group without influencing it and simultaneously recording it for later analysis

2. Review research goals and decide what it is you want to observe, i.e., what specific data you need

3. Locate appropriate subjects

3.1 Familiar or exotic

3.2 Need for interpreters or informants with strangers

4. Determine how you will record the data

4.1 Manually - notes (unstructured), tally sheet (structured), sociogram

4.2 Mechanically - audio or videotape

4.3 Structured protocol (formalized and rigid) or unstructured notes (flexible)

5. Select a mode of observation

5.1 Participant (researcher involved) and nonparticipant (researcher uninvolved)

5.11 Advantages (of participation) - natural setting, breadth/depth/context of data, ability to establish rapport/trust

5.12 Disadvantages (of participation) - unreliability, role limitations on mobility, loss of objectivity, interviewer effect, time

5.2 Announced (subjects aware of research) and unannounced (subjects unaware)

5.21 Advantages (of announcing) - ethical considerations

5.22 Disadvantages (of announcing) - subjects may not behave normally

It can be difficult being both a participant and an observer, so if you elect that approach, you may want to do a dry run to discover what is involved. At the same time, think about how you might handle the situation if those you are observing become aware of what you are doing. Whatever method you choose, you must decide before you start observing how you will proceed.

Types of Interview

Interview versus Questionnaire/Survey

Field Survey/Interview

Guide to Conducting Visitor Surveys

Conducting a Survey/Interview: Preparation through Analysis

Resources on Surveys

Characteristics of Surveys

Types of Surveys

Designing a Survey: Introduction

Designing Survey Questions: Advanced

Surveys and Confidentiality

Planning the Questionnaire

Guide to the Design of Questionnaires (click for PDF file)

Questionnaires

Format for Questions

Order of Questions

Types of Questions

Close-ended Questions

1. What is a Standardized Test?

A standardized instrument is one that has been normed across a population. That is, it has been carefully adjusted to obtain a predictable distribution of individual scores, in most cases, a normal distribution. In other words, it has been tried out with groups of subjects representing a cross section of the American population. One must be careful that the population on which the measure was standardized is similar to the population currently being studied. If it is not, the validity of the instrument is questionable. For example, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, a widely used personality measure, was standardized on a group of mentally ill patients and therefore has less validity when used for assessing non psychotic people. Similarly, it has been claimed that because the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test was standardized on a predominantly white population, it discriminates against ethnic minorities. For more discussion on validity and reliability see: Carmines, E.G. & Zeller, R.A. (1979). Reliability and validity assessment. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Andrulis, R.S. (1977). Adult assessment: a source book of tests and measures of human behavior. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

2. Kinds of Standardized Tests

Standardized instruments have been developed to obtain information about virtually every kind of human behavior ("behavior" meaning anything a person can do, including thinking and feeling).

There is also a wide range of brief personality instruments, like the FIRO-B, that may be used by laypersons. Intelligence tests are also included, but, by their nature, most are unsuitable for use by researchers who are not trained psychologists.

3. Advantages of Using Standardized Instruments

Often, a researcher must design instruments to gather the specific data. However, research is done as often using standardized instruments. Even when a specially designed instrument is used, a standardized test may be a useful tool. the main advantages of using standardized tests are: (a) their proven validity and reliability and (b) their convenience. If a standardized test accurately measures what you wish to measure, you should use it; if the wheel already exists, do not reinvent it. Since many standardized instruments have a number of separately validated scales, you may also wish to use one or more of these scales by themselves or combined with scales form different instruments. NB: If you do this, be aware that the existing reliability and validity of the instrument will be altered.

4. Selecting and Obtaining Standardized Instruments

A wide range of standardized instruments is available to measure a variety of behaviors. Each instrument is uniquely constructed and normed. Each requires different levels of sophistication and supervised professional training to administer, score and interpret. In making an instrument selection, the researcher must determine not only that the instrument chosen will provide the measure sought, but also that he or she has the expertise to validly and wisely us that instrument. If you decide to use a standardized test in your research, consultation with the instructor, before and after selection, will ensure that you are choosing the correct (appropriate for your study and level of expertise) instrument.

Given these guidelines of test use, publishers do not offer their instruments for sale to the general public. Rather, they are sold to people/institutions that have good reason to be using them: a school or college, or personnel office, clinic or hospital, etc. Once you have decided with your instructor on a particular instrument, you will need help in obtaining it. One resource you may tap is the personnel office in your organization. If that department does not already have the test, a manager there may be willing to order it for you. Your site contact may be helpful in this regard. Another resource is your instructor. He or she may be able to order the test ectly or arrange to have it ordered through the University.

Andrulis, R.S. (1977). Adult assessment: A source book of tests and measures of human behavior. Springfield, IL.: Charles C. Thomas.

This book contains valuable chapters on the purposes, reliability and validity as well as the proper choice of tests. Measures of particular relevance to OB students are: aptitude and achievement; personality; vocational interest; attitudes; personal performance and history; creativity; and management ability. A small sample of instruments listed gives some idea of the variety:

The Leadership Ability Evaluation

The Orientation Inventory (of job satisfaction)

Management Aptitude Inventory

Job Analysis and Interest Measure

Sales Motivation Inventory

Response to Power Measure

Responsibility Index

California Occupational Preference Survey

Work Values Inventory

Buros, Oscar Krisen. Mental measurement yearbook. Highland Park, N.J.: Gryphon Press. (published yearly.) The old standby. This index is oriented largely to clinical practice.

Sweetland, R. C. and Daniel, J.K. (1991). Tests. Intended as a "quick search" reference book for psychologists, educators, and human resource personnel.